Geographic variation of chlorinated pesticides, toxaphenes and PCBs in human milk from sub-arctic and arctic locations in Russia
Introduction
Since the first determination of DDTs and PCBs in human milk (Laug et al., 1951, Jensen, 1966), analyses of human milk from mothers worldwide have shown global distribution of persistent organic pollutants (POPs) (Skaare, 1981, Slorach and Vaz, 1983, Skaare et al., 1988). These chemicals are characterised by their lipophilicity and persistence and their biomagnification in food chains. The ingestion of contaminated food is considered to be the main source for human exposure to these chemicals (Ahlborg et al., 1992, Liem and Theelen, 1997, Schinas et al., 2000). In areas where fish and/or marine mammals constitute important parts of the diet, food of marine origin is considered to be the most important source of POPs in humans (Kinloch et al., 1992, Asplund et al., 1994, Dewailly et al., 1994, Bjerregaard et al., 2001). However, indoors spraying with organochlorine pesticides (OCPs), e.g. DDTs, occupational exposure through manufacturing of POPs and accidents may also contribute to exposure (Bouman et al., 1990, Schechter et al., 1994, WWF, 1998). Also, settlement in highly industrialised areas is found to increase levels of PCBs in humans (Koopman-Esseboom et al., 1994). Humans are only to a small extent capable of metabolising POPs. However, through the lactation process women can lower their body burden by transfer to the offspring (Skaare and Polder, 1990, Vaz et al., 1993, Nakagawa et al., 1999). The transfer of the persistent contaminants to the suckling new-born is a matter of great concern because of possible toxic effects caused by the chemicals.
Long-range atmospheric transport and deposition of POPs in the Arctic have been studied through the Arctic Monitoring and Assessment Programme (AMAP) (De March et al., 1998). This programme has led to a better understanding of the deposition and distribution of pollutants in cold regions (Hansen, 2000, Muir et al., 2000). Within the circumpolar studies several populations living in Arctic and sub-Arctic areas were determined as being highly exposed to POPs due to their local dietary habits (Dewailly et al., 1994, Bjerregaard et al., 2001).
The Russian population has gone through many changes in the last two decades, and the patterns of lifestyle and dietary habits may have changed. The northern part of Russia, especially the Kola Peninsula and the area around the White Sea is characterised by heavy industry, resulting in considerable pollution of the environment including humans (Norseth, 1994, Smith-Sivertsen et al., 1997, Odland et al., 1999a, Odland et al., 1999b, Odland et al., 1999c, Odland et al., 1999d, Odland et al., 1999e). In addition, the big rivers in Russia and Siberia transport pesticides from their respective basins into the Arctic where they can enter the food chain (Nakata et al., 1998, Zhulidov et al., 1998, Muir et al., 2000, Zhulidov et al., 2000, Lie et al., 2001). Another suggested pathway for contamination of rural areas in northern Russia is treatment of the reindeer with the technical mixture of HCHs in control against insects (black fly) (Zhulidov et al., 2000). As a result of the climatic conditions, substantial amounts of food are imported from outside the region, particularly from the southern parts of Russia, the Russian Federation and Ukraine where HCHs and DDTs still are the most used chlorinated insecticides (Zhulidov et al., 1998). However, dairy products, poultry, eggs, fish and reindeer meat are to some extent locally produced, while small private gardens give some supply of vegetables.
The aim of the present study was to monitor the contamination level with respect to OCPs and PCBs in delivering women from Kargopol, Severodvinsk, Arkhangelsk and Naryan-Mar, to elucidate possible differences between geographic areas and between parities, and to measure exposure of infants to the organochlorine contaminants.
Section snippets
Sampling and collection
In 1996 and 1997, a total of 140 human milk samples were collected at random in four different Russian City Hospitals. The locations and specifics of the studied areas (Fig. 1) are: Kargopol (a small inland town at 60° latitude with 66 000 inhabitants); Severodvinsk (a harbour with shipbuilding yards at 64° latitude with 245 000 inhabitants); and Arkhangelsk (paper mill, chemical and wood industries at 64° latitude with 380 000 inhabitants). These three areas are administrated in the Arkhangelsk
Characteristics
The characteristics of the mothers and infants are presented in Table 1. The mean age of the primiparous mothers was 23.2 compared to 27.4 for the multiparous. The mean maternal body mass index of the primiparous mothers was 25.6 compared to 26.0 for the multiparous mothers. The mean birth weight of the babies was 3278 g for first deliveries and 3392 g for second and later deliveries. Lowest birth-weights (1640 g) were observed in Severodvinsk (gestational age 37 weeks) and in Arkhangelsk (1750
Discussion
The mean age of the Russian primiparous mothers participating in this study was 23.2 years, which was lower compared to the corresponding level in Norway (26.2 years). In Naryan-Mar the mean age of primiparous mothers was higher than in the other studied areas (Table 1). The mean gestational age in Russia was very similar compared to Norway, 39.5 and 39.9 weeks, respectively. The mean birth weight for all infants in this study was 3313 g, which was very similar to reported birth weights in
Conclusion
In this study, we have shown that β-HCH and p,p′-DDE are the main contributors to the total POPs in human milk from northern Russia. The large variation in levels of POPs, which was demonstrated in all the studied areas, may be explained by differences in food habits between individuals and groups. Further investigations should therefore focus on surveys of dietary habits and exposure through food. In conclusion, the practice of breast-feeding should not be discouraged because of
Acknowledgements
This work has been supported by the Norwegian Research Council. The authors wish to thank the participating mothers and the staff at the obstetric departments of Kargopol, Severodvinsk, Arkhangelsk and Naryan-Mar for their excellent cooperation in the administration of the questionnaires and collection of samples. The support of Elisabeth Lie and Anders Ruus was gratefully acknowledged.
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