Public health benefits of strategies to reduce greenhouse-gas emissions: overview and implications for policy makers

doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(09)61759-1

The Lancet

Volume 374, Issue 9707, 19 December 2009–1 January 2010, Pages 2104-2114

https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(09)61759-1 Get rights and content

Summary

This Series has examined the health implications of policies aimed at tackling climate change. Assessments of mitigation strategies in four domains—household energy, transport, food and agriculture, and electricity generation—suggest an important message: that actions to reduce greenhouse-gas emissions often, although not always, entail net benefits for health. In some cases, the potential benefits seem to be substantial. This evidence provides an additional and immediate rationale for reductions in greenhouse-gas emissions beyond that of climate change mitigation alone. Climate change is an increasing and evolving threat to the health of populations worldwide. At the same time, major public health burdens remain in many regions. Climate change therefore adds further urgency to the task of addressing international health priorities, such as the UN Millennium Development Goals. Recognition that mitigation strategies can have substantial benefits for both health and climate protection offers the possibility of policy choices that are potentially both more cost effective and socially attractive than are those that address these priorities independently.

Introduction

Climate change threatens the health of human populations worldwide, but particularly in low-income countries.¹ These adverse health consequences are among the many important reasons why governments need collectively to act with resolution and urgency to reduce global greenhouse-gas emissions. What has been less widely understood, however, is that policies to reduce greenhouse-gas emissions (climate change mitigation policies) could often have more immediate and potentially large effects on population health. These ancillary effects are important not only because they can provide an additional rationale to pursue mitigation strategies, but also because progress has been slow to address international health priorities such as the UN Millennium Development Goals (MDGs)² and reductions in health inequities. Mitigation measures can thus offer an opportunity not only to reduce the risks of climate change but also, if well chosen and implemented, to deliver improvements in health—the so-called co-benefits of mitigation, although not all effects are necessarily positive.

Key messages

•
Many measures to reduce greenhouse-gas emissions in the sectors of household energy, transport, food and agriculture, and electricity generation have ancillary health benefits (or health co-benefits), which are often substantial.
•
The health co-benefits resulting from such measures can help address existing global health priorities, such as child mortality from acute respiratory infections, ischaemic heart disease in adults, and other non-communicable diseases.
•
Improvement of access to affordable, clean energy (especially for disadvantaged populations), together with other appropriate strategies in several sectors, can contribute to a reduction in the risk of dangerous climate change while improving health, reducing poverty, and supporting development.
•
Specific policies that can reduce greenhouse-gas emissions and result in health benefits include increased active transport (walking and cycling) and reduced private-car use in urban settings, increased uptake of improved cookstoves in low-income countries, reduced consumption of animal products in high-consumption settings, and generation of electricity from renewable or other low-carbon sources rather than from fossil fuels, particularly coal.
•
The varying costs of implementation of such strategies can be offset at least partly by the benefits to health and development, and these co-benefits should be taken into account in international negotiations.
•
Some measures, however, can have negative health effects; therefore assessment of health effects of greenhouse-gas mitigation strategies is important.
•
Mechanisms to transfer resources for clean development from high-income to low-income countries should take into account health consequences of the technologies and strategies in decisions about priorities for funding.
•
The methods for assessing the health effects of mitigation strategies for climate change outlined in this Series should be further developed and applied, to inform policy making.
•
Health professionals have an important role in the design of a low-carbon economy, motivated by evidence of the projected benefits to public health.

Section snippets

Overview of sectoral assessments

This Series focused on the health effects of mitigation strategies in four sectors—household energy,³ transport,⁴ food and agriculture,⁵ and electricity generation⁶—using examples from high-income and low-income or middle-income settings. In each sector, the potential links between reduction in greenhouse-gas emissions and health seem to be strong. The methods and results are summarised in the table and Figure 1, Figure 2. A fifth paper⁷ in the Series both reviews and provides new evidence for

Policy implications

Estimation and comparison of ancillary health effects is, unavoidably, imprecise. Nevertheless, it benefits from developments in the discipline of impact science (eg, WHO's Comparative Quantification of Health Risks¹¹ and assessments of the health effects of power generation in Europe¹²). Despite many scientific uncertainties (panel 2), the models provide useful evidence about the type and approximate scale of health effects that can be expected from pursuit of major mitigation policies. The

Aligning health, development, and climate change mitigation

The UN Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) states that mitigation measures bringing about societal benefits should be prioritised. Health is one of the clearest of the societal benefits (as mentioned prominently in the opening section of the UNFCCC 1992).²⁷ Benefits to health readily attract public support for political action, as shown by experiences in which health benefits have dominated the externalities of environmental interventions such as clean air legislation in many

Bridging of the equity divide

A major difficulty in international greenhouse-gas negotiations is the difference in historical and future perspectives between rich and poor countries. Observers in low-income countries point out that the historical activities in rich countries have caused most climate change so far.³¹ Since low-income countries have many urgent needs for development, they do not see mitigation of their own greenhouse-gas emissions as a high priority at present. Yet, if climate change is to be brought under

Call to action and conclusions

In panel 4 we summarise the implications for several stake-holder groups of the evidence from this Series. Health improvement (via both co-benefits and the avoidance of health effects related to climate change) needs to be integrated into policies to reduce greenhouse-gas emissions and the risk of dangerous climate change. We call on health professionals to reach beyond conventional professional boundaries to collaborate with policy makers and scientists concerned with the study, development,

References (33)

A Haines et al.
Climate change and human health: impacts, vulnerability, and mitigation
Lancet
(2006)
A Haines et al.
Policies for accelerating access to clean energy, improving health, advancing development, and mitigating climate change
Lancet
(2007)
M Ezzati et al.
Selected major risk factors and global and regional burden of disease
Lancet
(2002)
SO Rutstein
Effects of preceding birth intervals on neonatal, infant and under-five years mortality and nutritional status in developing countries: evidence from the demographic and health surveys
Int J Gynaecol Obstet
(2005)
P Wilkinson et al.
A global perspective on energy: health effects and injustices
Lancet
(2007)
Millennium Development Goals Report 2009
(2009)
P Wilkinson et al.
Public health benefits of strategies to reduce greenhouse-gas emissions: household energy
Lancet
(2009)
J Woodcock et al.
Public health benefits of strategies to reduce greenhouse-gas emissions: urban land transport
Lancet
(2009)
S Friel et al.
Public health benefits of strategies to reduce greenhouse-gas emissions: food and agriculture
Lancet
(2009)
A Markandya et al.
Public health benefits of strategies to reduce greenhouse-gas emissions: low-carbon electricity generation
Lancet
(2009)

KR Smith et al.

Public health benefits of strategies to reduce greenhouse-gas emissions: health implications of short-lived greenhouse pollutants

Lancet

(2009)

KR Smith et al.

Co-benefits of climate mitigation and health protection in energy systems: scoping methods

Ann Rev Public Health

(2008)

R Dobson

GPs to be creative in prescribing exercise (news)

BMJ

(2009)

B Butland et al.

Foresight. Tackling obesities: future choices—project report

(2007)

ExternE: externalities of energy: methodology 2005 update. EUR 21951

(2005)

Cited by (425)

High temperature, bargaining power and within-firm wage inequality: Evidence from China
2024, Economic Modelling
Climate change poses a significant challenge to the sustainable development of modern society, while its influence on income inequality remains understudied. This study examines how high temperature affects within-firm wage inequality using Chinese listed companies from 2006 to 2020. Results suggest that high temperature significantly increases managerial compensation while reducing employee wages, thereby exacerbating within-firm wage inequality. The main driver is the disparity in bargaining power between management and employees. China's 2012 heat subsidy policy has mitigated this inequality. Heterogeneity analysis reveals that in environments where employees wield more bargaining power, such as state-owned enterprises, sectors employing highly skilled workers, and regions with stronger unions, the negative impact is less pronounced. Conversely, in developed managerial markets, regulated industries, and large enterprises, where management holds stronger bargaining power, this impact is notably significant. These findings offer crucial insights for policymakers and stakeholders in addressing climate risks and regulating income distribution.
A scoping review of human health co-benefits of forest-based climate change mitigation in Europe
2024, Environment International
Climate change is a pressing global challenge with profound implications for human health. Forest-based climate change mitigation strategies, such as afforestation, reforestation, and sustainable forest management, offer promising solutions to mitigate climate change and simultaneously yield substantial co-benefits for human health. The objective of this scoping review was to examine research trends related to the interdisciplinary nexus between forests as carbon sinks and human health co-benefits. We developed a conceptual framework model, supporting the inclusion of exposure pathways, such as recreational opportunities or aesthetic experiences, in the co-benefit context. We used a scoping review methodology to identify the proportion of European research on forest-based mitigation strategies that acknowledge the interconnection between mitigation strategies and human impacts. We also aimed to assess whether synergies and trade-offs between forest-based carbon sink capacity and human co-benefits has been analysed and quantified. From the initial 4,062 records retrieved, 349 reports analysed European forest management principles and factors related to climate change mitigation capacity. Of those, 97 studies acknowledged human co-benefits and 13 studies quantified the impacts on exposure pathways or health co-benefits and were included for full review. Our analysis demonstrates that there is potential for synergies related to optimising carbon sink capacity together with human co-benefits, but there is currently a lack of holistic research approaches assessing these interrelationships. We suggest enhanced interdisciplinary efforts, using for example multideterminant modelling approaches, to advance evidence and understanding of the forest and health nexus in the context of climate change mitigation.
Pathways to a healthy net-zero future: report of the Lancet Pathfinder Commission
2024, The Lancet
Experimental investigation of the effect of fuel oil, graphene and HHO gas addition to diesel fuel on engine performance and exhaust emissions in a diesel engine
2024, International Journal of Hydrogen Energy
Today, research for alternative fuels continues due to the increasing energy demand, exhaust emission restrictions, and depletion of fossil fuels. It is important to use diesel engines for the opening of new oil fields in Turkey and for the utilization of fuel oil to be produced in these oil fields. In this study, pure diesel (D) diesel 60% and fuel oil 40% (DF40) were supplied by volume with an ultrasonic mixer. 50 (DF4050 N) and 100 ppm (DF40100 N) graphene have been added to eliminate fuel oil's adverse combustion effects by keeping the fuel oil constant. In addition, HHO gas was added to improve the combustion even more with a flow rate of 5 (DF4050N5H and DF40100N5H) and 10 (DF4050N10H and DF40100N10H) lt/min into the intake manifold by using the HHO generator. Experiments were carried out at 3000 RPM constant speed at 3.2, 6.4, 7.9, and 12.8 Nm engine torque without any modification on the diesel engine. The effects of these mixtures on combustion performance and exhaust emissions were investigated. Exhaust gas temperature and emissions were measured in the experiments. According to the measurements, thermal efficiency, brake specific energy consumption (BSEC), HC, CO, CO₂, particle emission, and NO_x emission values are given. Brake specific energy consumption (BSEC), CO, HC, and particle emissions decreased, and thermal efficiency, NO_x, CO_2, and exhaust gas temperature increased with the engine torque value increased as a result of the experiments. Thermal efficiency and CO₂ emission decreased, and BSEC, exhaust gas temperature, HC, CO, NO_x, and particulate emissions increased by adding fuel oil to diesel fuel. The thermal efficiency was increased by adding graphene and HHO gas from the intake manifold to DF40 fuel. The thermal efficiency improved, and emissions decreased with the more addition of graphene and HHO gas. Adding HHO gas improved thermal efficiency significantly at the 12.8 Nm engine load. With the addition of graphene and HHO gas to DF40 fuel, the BSEC value was improved at high torque values. The effect of improving thermal efficiency is also understood from the decrease in CO emissions and the increase in CO₂ emissions. HC and PM emissions decreased with the addition of graphene and HHO gas. It was observed that NO_x and exhaust gas temperature increased with increasing thermal efficiency.
Modeling optimal PV surface of BIPVs for maximum energy yield through Genetic Algorithms
2024, Energy and Built Environment
Price decrease of photovoltaic (PV) energy in recent years allows to an increase in the use of small-scale PV modules, especially in the residential sector. Considering that houses and buildings are exposed to solar radiation during the day, it is possible to generate electricity by installing PV modules at strategic locations within the construction, using facades, windows, walls and roofs as Building Integrated Photovoltaic (BIPV) applications. Based on the above, it is analyzed the geometry of Colombian terraces corresponding to an area located on top of houses and buildings, which have flat open spaces that serve as roofs. Uses of terraces are related to drying clothes and cultivation; therefore, it is possible assign a portion of the entire area to the generation of electricity from the installation of PV modules. Occupation area due to integrated BIPV applications, is an important issue and is often limited to the flat geometry of most commercial solar panels. Thus, the goal of this work, is to generate curved photovoltaic surfaces that maximize the area exposed to the sun, seeking to increase the power of radiation captured and using the same area of occupation of conventional PV modules. To achieve this, a Genetic Algorithm (GA) is integrated into a computational ray tracing tool, in order to evaluate the radiation captured by a set of surfaces, which have a projected flat area on the terrace of $1 m^{2}$ , considering historical irradiance data in Medellín, Colombia. The optimal PV surface obtained, presents an additional 19.3% of captured energy and an additional area of 28% compared to the flat geometry. This is a promising finding because it shows a direct relationship between radiation capture and the geometric shape of the PV surface. The performance of the Optimal PV surface is validated and compared with flat geometry using TracePro.
Effects on child and adolescent health of climate change mitigation policies: A systematic review of modelling studies
2023, Environmental Research
There is a growing body of modelling evidence that demonstrates the potential for immediate and substantial benefits to adult health from greenhouse gas mitigation actions, but the effects on the health of younger age groups is largely unknown. We conducted a systematic review to identify the available published evidence of the modelled effects on child and adolescent health (≤18 years of age) of greenhouse gas mitigation. We searched six databases of peer-reviewed studies published between January 1, 1990 and July 27, 2022, screened 27,282 original papers and included 23 eligible papers. All included studies were set in high- and middle-income countries; and all studies modelled the effects of interventions that could mitigate greenhouse gas emissions and improve air quality. Most of the available evidence suggests positive benefits for child and adolescent respiratory health from greenhouse gas mitigation actions that simultaneously reduce air pollution (specifically PM2.5 and nitrogen dioxide). We found scant evidence on child and adolescent health from regions more vulnerable to climate change, or on mitigation interventions that could affect exposures other than air pollution.

View all citing articles on Scopus

^‡: Based on the work of the Task Force on Climate Change Mitigation and Public Health, which is described in the preceding papers of this Series. Members listed at end of paper

View full text

SeriesPublic health benefits of strategies to reduce greenhouse-gas emissions: overview and implications for policy makers

Summary

Introduction

Section snippets

Overview of sectoral assessments

Policy implications

Aligning health, development, and climate change mitigation

Bridging of the equity divide

Call to action and conclusions

Lancet

Lancet

Lancet

Int J Gynaecol Obstet

Lancet

Millennium Development Goals Report 2009

Public health benefits of strategies to reduce greenhouse-gas emissions: household energy

Lancet

Public health benefits of strategies to reduce greenhouse-gas emissions: urban land transport

Lancet

Public health benefits of strategies to reduce greenhouse-gas emissions: food and agriculture

Lancet

Public health benefits of strategies to reduce greenhouse-gas emissions: low-carbon electricity generation

Lancet

Public health benefits of strategies to reduce greenhouse-gas emissions: health implications of short-lived greenhouse pollutants

Lancet

Co-benefits of climate mitigation and health protection in energy systems: scoping methods

Ann Rev Public Health

GPs to be creative in prescribing exercise (news)

BMJ

Foresight. Tackling obesities: future choices—project report

ExternE: externalities of energy: methodology 2005 update. EUR 21951

Series
Public health benefits of strategies to reduce greenhouse-gas emissions: overview and implications for policy makers